Contents • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • History [ ] The staff is first mentioned in the Book of Exodus (chapter 4, verse 2), when God appears to Moses in the burning bush. God asks what Moses has in his hand, and Moses answers 'a staff' ('a rod' in the KJV version). The staff is miraculously transformed into a snake and then back into a staff. The staff is thereafter referred to as the 'rod of God' or 'staff of God' (depending on the translation). 'And thou shalt take this rod in thine hand, wherewith thou shalt do signs.' And Moses went and returned to Jethro, his father in law, and said unto him, 'Let me go, I pray thee, and return unto my brethren which are in Egypt and see whether they be yet alive.'

And Jethro said to Moses, 'Go in peace.' The LORD said unto Moses in Midian, 'Go, return into Egypt: for all the men are dead which sought thy life.' And Moses took his wife and his sons and set them upon an ass; and he returned to the land of Egypt: and Moses took the rod of God in his hand. — () Moses and Aaron appear before the pharaoh, when Aaron's rod is transformed into a serpent. The pharaoh's sorcerers are also able to transform their own rods into serpents, but Aaron's swallows them. Aaron's rod is again used to turn the Nile blood-red.

It is used several times on God's command to initiate the plagues of Egypt. During the Exodus, Moses stretches out his hand with the staff to part the Red Sea. While in the 'wilderness' after leaving Egypt, Moses follows God's command to strike a rock with the rod to create a spring for the Israelites from which to drink. However, Moses strikes the rock twice with the staff, when the water does not immediately appear after the first strike.

For striking the rock twice, implying lack of faith, God punished Moses by not letting him enter into the Promised Land (Numbers 20:12). Finally, Moses uses the staff in the battle at Rephidim between the Israelites and the Amalekites. When he holds up the 'rod of God', the Israelites 'prevail'. When he drops it, their enemies gain the upper hand. Aaron and Hur help him to keep the staff raised until victory is achieved.

Official use [ ] The crosier is the symbol of the governing office of a. Western Christianity [ ] In, the crosier (known as the pastoral staff, from the Latin pastor, shepherd) is shaped like a. A bishop or church head bears this staff as 'shepherd of the flock of God', particularly the community under his canonical jurisdiction, but any bishop, whether or not assigned to a functional diocese, may also use a crosier when conferring and presiding. The Roman Catholic says that, as a sign of his pastoral function, a bishop uses a crosier within his territory, but any bishop celebrating the liturgy solemnly with the consent of the local bishop may also use it. It adds that, when several bishops join in a single celebration, only the one presiding uses a crosier. Eufemia Szaniawska, of the Benedictine Monastery in with a crosier, c. 1768, in A bishop usually holds his crosier with his left hand, leaving his right hand free to bestow.

Nov 12, 2014. Frankincense, the oleogum resin from Boswellia sp., has been an early luxury good in both Western and Eastern societies and is particularly used in Christian funerary and liturgical rites. The scant grave goods in late medieval burials comprise laterally perforated pottery vessels which are usually filled with. Catholic Church Liturgy Based On Caeremoniale Episcoporum.

The Caeremoniale Episcoporum states that the bishop holds the crosier with the open side of the crook forward, or towards the people. It also states that a bishop usually holds the crosier during a and when listening to the reading of the Gospel, giving a homily, accepting vows, solemn promises or a profession of faith, and when blessing people, unless he must lay his hands on them. When the bishop is not holding the crosier, it is put in the care of an, known as the 'crosier bearer', who may wear around his shoulders a shawl-like called a, so as to hold the crosier without touching it with his bare hands.

Another altar server, likewise wearing a vimpa, holds the when the bishop is not wearing it. In the tradition, the crosier may be carried by someone else walking before the bishop in a procession.

The crosier is conferred upon a bishop during his to the. It is also presented to an at his blessing, an ancient custom symbolizing his shepherding of the. Although there is no provision for the presentation of a crosier in the liturgy associated with the blessing of an, by long-standing custom an abbess may bear one when leading her community of. The traditional explanation of the crosier's form is that, as a shepherd's staff, it includes a hook at one end to pull back to the flock any straying sheep, a pointed finial at the other tip to goad the reluctant and the lazy, and a rod in between as a strong support. The crosier is used in to represent pastoral authority in the of, bishops, abbots and abbesses. It was suppressed in most personal arms in the Catholic Church in 1969, and is since found on arms of abbots and abbesses, diocesan coats of arms and other corporate arms.

In the, Incorporated—the largest Christian church in the United States— the bears a crosier as a sign of his role as positional and functional leader of the Church. Papal usage [ ]. Main article: carried a crosier at times in the first centuries of the church. This practice was phased out and disappeared by the time of in the thirteenth century. In the Middle Ages, much as bishops carried a crosier, popes carried a cross with three bars, one more than the two bars found on crosiers carried before in processions.

This was also phased out. Introduced the modern papal pastoral staff, the, in 1965. He and his successors have carried a few versions of this staff, but never a croiser. Eastern Christianity [ ]. Holding a crosier; the difference from Greek crosiers is noticeable especially in height and style.

It is decorated with a traditional red cloth. In the churches, crosiers are used as pastoral staffs held by bishops. The uses both Eastern- and Western-style crosiers, while the and have crosiers that are thicker than their Eastern counterparts.

Clerics of the and the use crosiers that look exactly like the Greek ones. In the, crosiers are sometimes somewhat longer and are always decorated with a bloody red cloth around the top cross and the serpents. This symbolises the bishop's responsibility for the blood of his flock.

Description [ ] Crosiers are often made of fine metal, or are at least gilded or silver-plated. They may also be made of wood, though this is more common of the crosier carried by an abbot than of a bishop. Western crosiers [ ]. 1220-30, treasury of the former Premonstratensian in Switzerland Crosiers used by Western bishops have curved or hooked tops, similar in appearance to staves traditionally used by, hence they are also known as. In some languages there is only one term referring to this form, such as the German Krummstab or Dutch kromstaf.

The crook itself (i.e., the curved top portion) may be formed as a simple shepherd's crook, terminating in a floral pattern, reminiscent of the, or in a serpent's head. It may encircle a depiction of the bishop's or the figure of a saint. In some very ornate crosiers, the place where the staff meets the crook may be designed to represent a church. In previous times, a cloth of linen or richer material, called the (literally, 'sweat cloth'), was suspended from the crosier at the place where the bishop would grasp it. This was originally a practical application which prevented the bishop's hand from sweating and discolouring (or being discoloured by) the metal.

The invention of in the late 19th century and its subsequent incorporation in material used for crosiers rendered moot its original purpose it became more elaborate and ceremonial in function over time. [ ] In, the sudarium is often still depicted when crosiers occur on coats of arms.

In the Roman Catholic Church, the crosier is always carried by the bishop with the crook turned away from himself; that is to say, facing toward the persons or objects he is facing, regardless of whether he is the or not. The on 26 November 1919, stated in a reply to the following question, In case an outside Bishop uses a Bishops' staff, this being either required by the function or permitted by the Ordinary, in what direction should he hold the upper part, or crook? Always with the crook turned away from himself, that is toward the persons or objects which he is facing. (AAS 12-177) Eastern crosiers [ ] The crosiers carried by Eastern bishops,, abbots and abbesses differ in design from the Western crosier.

The Eastern crosier is shaped more like a crutch than a shepherd's staff. The sudarium or crosier mantle is still used in the Eastern churches, where it is usually made of a rich fabric such as brocade or velvet, and is usually embroidered with a cross or other religious symbol, trimmed with galoon around the edges and fringed at the bottom. The sudarium is normally a rectangular piece of fabric with a string sewn into the upper edge which is used to tie the sudarium to the crosier and which can be drawn together to form pleats. As the sudarium has grown more elaborate, bishops no longer hold it between their hand and the crosier, but place their hand under it as they grasp the crosier, so that it is visible. The Eastern crosier is found in two common forms.

The older form is -shaped, with arms curving down, surmounted by a small cross. The other has a top composed of a pair of sculptured serpents or dragons with their heads curled back to face each other, with a small cross between them, representing the bishop's diligence in guarding his flock.

Symbolism [ ]. A crosier on the coat of arms of, which was ruled by during the The traditional explanation for the form of Western crosiers, beyond the obvious reference to the bishop as a shepherd to his flock, is this: the pointed at the base symbolizes the obligation of the prelate to goad the spiritually lazy; the crook at the top, his obligation to draw back those who stray from the faith; and the staff itself, his obligation to stand as a firm support for the faithful.

[ ] It is considered to be both a rod and a staff (): a rod for punishing the recalcitrant, and a staff for leading the faithful. [ ] The Eastern Orthodox and Eastern Rite Catholic crosier is found in two common forms. One is -shaped, with curved arms, surmounted by a small cross. The other has a top comprising a pair of sculptured serpents or dragons curled back to face each other, with a small cross between them. The symbolism in the latter case is of the made by as related in. It is also reminiscent of the of or the rod of the ancient Greek god, whose worship was centered around the Aegean, including Asia Minor, indicating the role of the bishop as healer of spiritual diseases.

[ ] Additionally, there is a probable link between the shape of the crosier and that of the, the traditional staff of the ancient Roman. Gallery [ ] •. • Chisholm, Hugh, ed. 7 (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press. • Caeremoniale Episcoporum (Vatican Polyglott Press, 1985), 59 • References [ ] • Morrisroe, Patrick (1908).

In Herbermann, Charles.. New York: Robert Appleton Company. • 'Crosier',, Springfield, MA: Merriam-Webster, Inc., 2005 • Noonan, James-Charles, Jr. (1996), The Church Visible: The Ceremonial Life and Protocol of the Roman Catholic Church, New York: Viking, p. 191, •. Archived from on 28 November 2009. Retrieved 22 September 2007. External links [ ] Wikimedia Commons has media related to.

• kneeling before the of, carrying a form of the with a three-barred • •.

Frankincense, the oleogum resin from Boswellia sp., has been an early luxury good in both Western and Eastern societies and is particularly used in Christian funerary and liturgical rites. The scant grave goods in late medieval burials comprise laterally perforated pottery vessels which are usually filled with charcoal. They occur in most regions of western Europe and are interpreted as incense burners but have never been investigated with advanced analytical techniques. We herein present chemical and anthracological results on perforated funerary pots from 4 Wallonian sites dating to the 12–14 th century AD. Chromatographic and mass spectrometric analysis of lipid extracts of the ancient residues and comparison with extracts from four Boswellia species clearly evidence the presence of degraded frankincense in the former, based on characteristic triterpenoids, viz. Boswellic and tirucallic acids, and their myriad dehydrated and oxygenated derivatives. Cembrane-type diterpenoids indicate B.

Sacra (southern Arabia) and B. Serrata (India) as possible botanical origins. Furthermore, traces of juniper and possibly pine tar demonstrate that small amounts of locally available fragrances were mixed with frankincense, most likely to reduce its cost. Additionally, markers of ruminant fats in one sample from a domestic context indicate that this vessel was used for food preparation. Anthracological analysis demonstrates that the charcoal was used as fuel only and that no fragrant wood species were burned. The chars derived from local woody plants and were most likely recovered from domestic fires. Furthermore, vessel recycling is indicated by both contextual and biomarker evidence.

The results shed a new light on funerary practices in the Middle Ages and at the same time reveal useful insights into the chemistry of burned frankincense. The discovery of novel biomarkers, namely Δ 2-boswellic acids and a series of polyunsaturated and aromatic hydrocarbons, demonstrates the high potential for organic chemical analyses of incense residues. Introduction Frankincense, or olibanum, is an oleogum resin that exudes in pale yellow to red tears from incisions in the bark of certain Boswellia trees (Burseraceae family) thriving in arid regions in the horn of Africa and southern Arabia. It is generally composed of 5–9% essential oil, 65–85% alcohol-soluble resin and the remaining water-soluble gums. The precise chemical composition depends on the botanical species. Most important species are Boswellia serrata (India), B. Sacra (Yemen, Oman), B.

Carterii (Somalia, contentiously considered the same species as B. Papyrifera (Eritrea, Sudan, Ethiopia) and B.

Frereana (Somalia),. Myrrh is another classical incense source and has often been confused with frankincense. Both oleogum resins have often been loosely designated by the term “incense”, particularly in older literature, generating ambiguity as to the exact taxon,. Aterciopelados Disco Grafia De Ricardo. However, whilst frankincense and myrrh trees both belong to the same Burseraceae family and grow in the same regions ( cf.

Supra), they constitute two separate genera, viz. Boswellia and Commiphora, respectively, and their resins have disparate chemical compositions. Plumes of burning frankincense are associated with perfumes, embalming and religious rituals.

Furthermore, its medicinal properties attract much attention nowadays as they did in antiquity – but the emission of toxic polyaromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) during incense burning raises some health concerns as well,. The use of incense has a long history. From the late 4 th millennium BC onwards, Arabian incense burners began to appear and Egyptians travelled great distances to import frankincense and myrrh,,. Frankincense was also highly esteemed throughout Assyria, Babylonia, Persia, Greece and the demand reached its peak when Romans burned it in temples, at funerals or in domestic contexts for propitiating the gods.

With the spread of Christianity, the incense trade partially collapsed. Early Christians initially repudiated incense burning for its idolatrous connotation but later adopted the use of incense in their rituals –. Trade connections and frankincense consumption, however, never reached the level of Roman times again and this coincided with severe droughts, over-grazing and an increasing need for firewood causing the habitat of Boswellia trees in South Arabia to shrink,. Unfortunately, our knowledge on how the trade evolved throughout the Middle Ages is rather scattered. Political and religious changes in the Arabian Peninsula brought about shifts in the directions of trading links.

Classical incense ports such as Qana’ disappeared and new ones such as al-Shi r, Sharma and al-Mukallā began to flourish –. In the 13 th and 14 th century, Marco Polo mentioned that frankincense trees grew in Shi r and in ufār, with those of Shi r producing the best quality, and Ibn Battuta recorded great quantities in Hāsik. Recent studies on South Arabian incense burners and resinous remains called for a renewal of interest in medieval incense trade networks,. Archaeological frankincense, despite its high value and widespread use, has rarely been identified by chemical analyses.

To date, the resin has been demonstrated in remains from sites in Egypt –, Yemen,, and France. These cases, however, represent analyses of resin-like residues. To the best of our knowledge, remains from incense burning have not extensively been characterized. Noteworthy is Basar’s experimental work on pyrolysed frankincense which was aimed at assessing the fate of di- and triterpenoid constituents.

Still, archaeological residues, particularly those associated with ceramics, are expected to be more complex due to degradation processes during heating or burial which may be catalyzed by metal ions in the ceramic fabric. The current paper focuses on late medieval funerary pots from the southern Belgian region of Wallonia.

They were found in either male or female burials in association with ecclesiastical buildings such as parish, abbey and convent churches, cathedrals, college churches and chapels. Burial types include brick or stone lined graves, graves without lining and wooden coffins.

The pots typically date between the 11 th and 15 th century AD and also occur in northern Spain, France, northern Italy, southern Belgium, Denmark and a few rare sites in England, Scotland and northern Germany. No finds are known from northern Belgium, the Netherlands, northeastern France or southern Germany –.

A study of 192 funerary pots from southern Belgian contexts indicates that both the number and position of these funerary pots show much variation between graves. They do not occur systematically, however, and finds remain relatively rare, i.e. Maximally 1% of all excavated graves at large burial sites contain funerary pots,,.

The vessels are mostly ordinary domestic ceramics like cooking pots or jugs –. Sometimes minor traces of use and chipping are observed which, in the latter case, may indicate that the ceramics were of second choice,. Almost all of the pots show lateral perforations which, in most cases, have been made after the pots had been fired,. The majority of the pots are filled with charcoal. Vessels from northwestern Europe, including the ones from Belgium, are generally interpreted as censers, based on their appearance and on historic manuscripts and iconographic sources,.

Vessels from other regions in Europe that lack perforations and charcoal are interpreted as holy water containers or lamps but these were not found in southern Belgium,,,. During a recent study of several funerary pots from multiple sites in southern Belgium, visible residues were observed on the inner side of some of the pots. The results presented herein describe gas chromatography-mass spectrometry (GC-MS) and anthracological analyses aimed at characterizing the type of resin used for incense burning, assessing the potential use of fragrant woody taxa and identifying the type of charcoal fuel. Commercial resins from four Boswellia species were analysed for comparison and to verify species-specific criteria. Furthermore, residues absorbed inside the ceramic fabric were also analyzed to find out whether the pots were primarily made for this use or were recycled.

Lipid extraction Residues from 8 unwashed pots have been studied (). Surface residues (100–1000 mg) were sampled with a spatula or a hand drill. All residue types were crushed with mortar and pestle. The sherd samples (ca.

5 g) were further powdered in a ball mill (stainless steel). A standard lipid extraction was performed using chloroform: methanol (2∶1 v/v) as solvent and ultrasonication to assist the extraction. 50 µg of n-heptadecane was added as internal standard prior to extraction. After centrifugation and filtration (PTFE 0.45 µm, Macherey-Nagel), the extract was concentrated under a gentle stream of nitrogen and derivatised with BSTFA+1%TMCS (60°C, 60 min) and dissolved in toluene before analysis with GC-MS.

The commercial Boswellia resins were extracted and derivatised in the same manner. Gas Chromatography Mass Spectrometry GC-MS analyses were carried out using a 7890A Agilent gas chromatograph coupled to a 5977A mass spectrometric detector. The GC was equipped with a HP-5MS capillary column (30 m×0.25 mm×0.25 µm). 1 µl of each sample was injected using splitless (head pressure 9.15 psi) or pulsed splitless (head pressure 20 psi) injection at a temperature of 250°C. The initial oven temperature of 80°C was held for 1 min, ramped at 10°C min −1 to 150°C, then ramped at 4°C min −1 to 320°C and finally kept at this temperature for 20 min.

The transfer line and ion source were held at 330°C and 230°C, respectively. Mass spectra were taken between masses m/ z 50–700 with an ionization potential of 70 eV. Peak identifications were performed using the NIST11 mass spectral database, published mass spectra, retention characteristics ( viz. Comparison to reference Boswellia extracts, published retention indices), mass spectral deconvolution (using Masshunter and AMDIS software) and interpretation of mass spectra,. Anthracological analyses Charcoal from the content of 21 pots has been studied ().

From each of these pots, a minimum of 100 charcoal fragments has been identified. If fewer charcoal fragments were present, all of these have been studied. For identification, each fragment was manually broken along three different planes (transversal, radial, tangential). The anatomical characteristics visible on these fresh surfaces were studied using reflected light microscopy (50–500x) and wood anatomical atlases – and a reference collection of modern charred wood species. GC-MS analysis of modern Boswellia resins Commercial resins were analysed to establish a database of mass spectra, to compare the composition with the archaeological samples, and to verify species-specific criteria.

Only di- and triterpenoids are reported here and the results are summarized in (for molecular structures, see ). Volatile mono- and sesquiterpenoids are also detected but were not investigated in detail because they are not expected to be preserved in residues of incense burning. Major triterpenoids in all species are boswellic acids and their 3- O-acetyl derivatives with a clear ursane over oleanane predominance (, ). Oxygenated forms of boswellic acids are also detected, e.g. 11-keto-β-boswellic acid, 11-hydroxy-β-boswellic acid and their corresponding 3- O-acetyl derivatives. Boswellic acids and their derivatives are specific for Boswellia species, particularly B.

Sacra, B papyrifera and B. The ratio of 3- O-acetyl-11-keto-β-boswellic acid to 11-keto-β-boswellic acid has been proposed as a further species-specific criterium,. It amounts to 1 for B. Serrata and 4–7 in B. Carterii and B.

Tirucallol and tirucallic acids such as β-elemonic acid, β-elemolic acid and β-elemolic acid acetate are also present and their relative abundance is higher in B. Serrata and B. Papyrifera than in B. A reversed pattern is observed for amyrins and lupanes which are most abundant in B. Relative abundances (%) of di- and triterpenoids identified in commercial specimens of Boswellia resins.

The diterpenoid profile consists mainly of cembrane type alcohols such as incensol, serratol and incensol acetate. Incensol and serratol are not fully derivatized () and the free alcohols show almost full coelution (retention indices 2150 and 2152, respectively).

This is also evident from the data from Hamm et al., in which compounds 127 and 128 (same retention indices) were identified as incensol and isoincensol co-eluting with isoincensol acetate, respectively, based on mass spectral data. However, comparison of their mass spectra with those of isolated incensol and serratol reveals that compound 127 was correctly identified as incensol but that compound 128 corresponds to serratol, a diterpenoid common to Boswellia species, particularly B.

Carterii and B. We were able to successfully resolve these co-eluting compounds by mass spectral deconvolution, with the summed peak areas of the extracted compound chromatograms (ECCs) amounting to 95% of the peak area of the total ion count chromatogram ().

Diterpenoid profiles of the commercial Boswellia resins are dominated by incensol and serratol in B. Carterii (61% and 24% of total identified diterpenoids, respectively), by serratol in B. Sacra (63%) and B. Serrata (76%), and by verticilla-4(20),7,11-triene, incensol and incensol acetate in B. Papyrifera (24%, 25% and 43%, respectively). GC-MS analysis of archaeological residues The surfaces residues and vessel fillings of most perforated pots consist predominantly of ursane- and oleanane-type triterpenoids besides an array of minor aliphatic lipids (e.g.

Fatty acids, alkanols, alkanes) and synthetic contaminants (e.g. Oleamide, phthalates). These minor components are not necessarily related to the use-phases of the pots but may have intruded the residues during prolonged contact with soil particles and during transportation in plastic bags, respectively,. To exclude these contamination issues and to verify earlier vessel uses, residues absorbed inside the ceramic fabric were analyzed whenever possible. Contrary to the triterpenoid predominance in most samples, the lipid composition of samples Q10 and N13 was dominated by diterpenoids and aliphatic lipids, respectively.

The chromatograms of samples R9, Q10 and Q11 are displayed in and a list of all detected compounds with retention and mass spectral data can be found in. Major diterpenoid and triterpenoid structures are depicted in. Deconvoluted mass spectra of Δ 2-boswellic acids as recorded in sample Q11: (a) Δ 2-α-boswellic acid = oleana-2,12-dien-24-oic acid, (b) Δ 2-β-boswellic acid = ursa-2,12-dien-24-oic. As stated above, boswellic acids and their derivatives are highly diagnostic for frankincense.

Other minor constituents of frankincense are also present, mostly in trace abundances (0.1–0.3 µg g −1). These include lupeolic acid (sample R9), its Δ 2 derivative (sample Q11), tirucallic acids (samples R9 and Q11) and serratol and incensol (samples Q11, L14 and L15). Furthermore, ring A contracted neotriterpenoids (samples R9, Q11, L14 and L15) and polyunsaturated or aromatic hydrocarbons (samples R2, R9, Q11, Q12, L14 and L15) are observed in minor amounts. The latter include tetracyclic hydrocarbons, e.g. Des-A-ursa-5(10),12-diene, des-A-26,27-dinorursa-5,7,9,11,13-pentaene and 1,9-dimethylchrysene, as well as pentacyclic hydrocarbons, e.g.

24,25-dinorursa-1,3,5(10),12-tetraene, 24,25,26,27-tetranorursa-1,3,5(10),6,8,10,13-heptaene, 1,2,9-trimethyl-1,2,3,4-tetrahydropicene, 2,9-dimethylpicene. Many of these compounds exhibit significant coelution and their detection and identification was mainly achieved by selected ion chromatogram screening () and by using published mass spectral data and retention characteristics –. Detail of the total ion count (TIC) and extracted ion chromatograms of sample Q11, showing the presence of mono- and polyaromatic triterpenoids. The molecular composition of sample Q10 has a deviating pattern and consists exclusively of diterpenoids (). Major peaks (30–170 µg g −1) were from abietane compounds such as 18-norabieta-8,11,13-triene, tetrahydroretene, retene, 13-isopropyl-5α-podocarpa-6,8,11,13-tetraen-16-oic acid, dehydroabietic acid, 15-hydroxydehydroabietic acid and 7-oxodehydroabietic acid. Pimarane compounds such as isopimara-8,15-dien-8-oic acid, pimaric acid, sandaracopimaric acid, isopimaric acid are also present. These abietane and pimarane diterpenoids are highly diagnostic for a tar derived from the Pinaceae family,.

In addition, the chromatogram displays trace amounts of 16-nordehydroabietic acid, 16,17-bisnordehydroabietic acid, 7-oxo-18-norabieta-8,11,13-triene, 15,16,17-trisnordehydroabietic acid, simonellite, 5α- and 5β-9,10-secodehydroabietic acid as well as polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) such as phenanthrene, methylphenanthrenes, pimanthrene, 7-ethyl-1-methylphenanthrene, methylcyclopentenophenanthrene and methylretenes. Dehydroabietic acid, 7-oxodehydroabietic acid, retene and some pimaric acids are also detected in trace amounts in samples R2, R9, Q11, L14 and L15. Phenolic diterpenes ferruginol, totarol and their corresponding ketones are detected in trace amounts (0.1–0.3 µg g −1) in samples Q11 and Q12 ().

These are highly diagnostic for the Cupressaceae (e.g. Tetraclinis, Juniperus, Cupressus) and Podocarpaceae family (e.g. Podocarpus) and also occur in Cedrus atlantica. The absorbed residues from samples R2 and R9 contain only trace amounts of triterpenoids such as 24-norursa-3,12-diene, 24-norursa-3,12-dien-11-one, α-amyrenone and corresponding oleanane compounds. No other molecule classes are present. 2.2 Aliphatic signatures in samples from Namur The lipid extracts of both the absorbed and surface residues of sample N13 consist predominantly of aliphatic compounds (). Most abundant are palmitic acid (C 16∶0) and stearic acid (C 18∶0) exhibiting absolute concentrations of 3.5 µg g −1 and 3.0 µg g −1, respectively.

Although these concentrations are quite low in comparison to food residues from other sites and could possibly be interpreted as background contamination,, they are detected together with compounds that are typically associated with food processing, e.g. Azelaic acid, C 18 vicinal dihydroxy fatty acids, C 18 ω-(o-alkylphenyl)alkanoic acids and C 31–35 mid-chain ketones. These compounds provide unambiguous evidence for the heating of fatty materials in ceramic vessels at temperatures above 300°C,. Furthermore, mid-chain ketones, when formed by condensation of saturated fatty acids, can provide information as to the source of the fatty material, based on the distribution of the carbonyl position. Assuming that all ketones arise from acyl lipid pyrolysis, the original acyl distribution can be reconstructed by mass spectral deconvolution (). The resulting profile is characterized by a relatively high amount of stearyl moieties and small amounts of C 15 and C 17 fatty acyl moieties, which are characteristic features of ruminant fats.

Traces of long-chain (C 22–C 32) alkanols could be indicative for leafy vegetables although they were only detected in trace abundances (). Anthracological analysis A total of 1854 charcoal fragments has been identified from the content of the different funerary pots, resulting in a minimum number of 11 identified taxa ().

The charcoal assemblage from all the studied funerary pots is dominated by oak ( Quercus sp.), beech ( Fagus sylvatica) or hornbeam ( Carpinus betulus). All identified taxa can have occurred in the vegetation surrounding the sites. No exotic taxa have been found and none of the identified taxa has specific odoriferous or aromatic characteristics.

Chemistry of burned incense remnants A prime objective was to identify the incense or incense mixture which has been burned in the late medieval funerary vessels from southern Belgium. Chemotaxonomic screening of the lipid extracts has provided unambiguous proof for frankincense, viz.

The oleo-gum resin of Boswellia sp., but also revealed that the chemical signatures were greatly altered and differed almost completely from those of fresh frankincense (cf. An overview of all identified resin markers is given in. Original cembrane alcohols, tirucallic acids, boswellic and lupeolic acids were only recovered in trace amounts. Instead, 24-nortriterpenoids, amyrin derivatives and Δ 2-triterpenoids were identified as major compounds.

The overall good preservation state offers an excellent opportunity to investigate which chemical transformations have occurred during frankincense burning or during burial. A proposal for degradation pathways of ursane type compounds is presented in. It should, however, be noted that the order of the separate degradation steps may not be fixed. Certain degradation products can still be linked to the original resin as will be seen below.

Summary of major resin markers identified in samples R2, R9, Q10, Q11, Q12, L14 and L15. A full list of all individual compounds can be found in Table S1.

Amyrins, their acetates and oxidized forms are widespread phytochemicals and are produced by many higher plants, including Boswellia sp.,. By contrast, 24-nortriterpenoids such as Δ 3,12-ursadienes and Δ 3,9(11),12-ursatrienes are much more specific. They were already identified in Boswellia resin pyrolysates and are produced from boswellic acids and their corresponding acetates (). They are formed through a combined decarboxylation and dehydration (resp. Deacetoxylation) in which the carboxylic acid at C-24 plays a crucial role as favored leaving group.

Apart from natural degradation, they may also be formed in the hot injector of the gas chromatograph,. Analyses of modern frankincense, however, demonstrate that the formation of these analytical artifacts is rather limited (cf. Peaks 9–10 in ). Therefore, their high abundance in the archaeological residues (peaks 7–10 in ) suggests that they represent markers for degraded frankincense. Δ 2-boswellic and Δ 2-lupeolic acids constitute another group of diagnostic compounds, which are identified here for the first time. They were not detected when analyzing the modern reference resins and may be considered as first stage degradation products of boswellic and lupeolic acids, i.e. They are most likely formed by dehydration of the 3α alcohol functionality () as is the case for amyrins.

Fortunately, the diagnostic carboxylic acid group on C-24 is preserved which makes these compounds suitable as univocal biomarkers for degraded frankincense. Furthermore, the presence of ring A contracted neotriterpenoids and Δ 9(11),12 triterpenoids () testifies that dehydration processes have indeed taken place. Neotriterpenoids are formed from amyrins through a Nametkin rearrangement and the Δ 9(11),12 double bond constitutes the dehydrated form of Δ 12 triterpenoids with an alcohol functionality on C-11 such as 11-hydroxyboswellic acids which are naturally present in frankincense.

Dehydration reactions may have taken place during mild pyrolysis or during prolonged contact with desiccants such as charcoal. Of particular interest are also the polyunsaturated hydrocarbons and PAHs which were present in minor amounts. To date, these compounds have only been identified in sedimentary rocks and lake or deep-sea sediments of geological age, e.g.,,,,. Tetracyclic hydrocarbons such as des-A-ursa-5(10),12-diene are formed by a Norrish type cleavage of the A ring and, like pentacyclic oleanane and ursane compounds, may undergo a series of dehydrogenation, demethylation and progressive aromatization reactions to form PAHs such as dimethylchrysene and dimethylpicene (). These types of reactions also act upon abietane and pimarane diterpenoids during pine tar or pitch production (cf.

Diterpenoid profile of sample Q10;, ) and during pine wood combustion. At mild pyrolytic conditions, viz. Temperatures between 100–200°C, abietic acid dehydrogenates to its more stable and monoaromatic derivative dehydroabietic acid. Further thermal treatment of the tars at temperatures above 300°C initiates decarboxylation, dealkylation and aromatization reactions, which generate partially and fully aromatic hydrocarbons such as retene and pimanthrene –. Radical pathways leading to the formation of more toxic and higher molecular weight PAHs, e.g. Benzo[a]pyrene and benzofluoroanthenes, only proceed at temperatures in excess of 400°C. Although frankincense triterpenoids may not necessarily behave in the same way as pine wood diterpenoids, the low abundance of the polyunsaturated hydrocarbons and PAHs and the absence of higher molecular weight PAHs seems to suggest that these funerary pots have undergone only mild pyrolytic conditions.

Despite the trace amounts of original frankincense constituents, further identification to species-level is not impossible. Inter-species variation in chemical composition was verified by analyzing commercial resins of B. Papyrifera, B.

Our results are summarized in and correspond well to published data,,. However, many identification criteria that apply for fresh frankincense, such as the ratio of 3- O-acetyl-11-keto-β-boswellic acid to 11-keto-β-boswellic acid and the percentages of lupane or tirucallane compounds,, cannot be used for the ancient residues. For instance, relative concentrations of amyrins, boswellic acids, lupeolic acids and tirucallic acids may change during pyrolysis or burial because of different degradation kinetics. Nevertheless, the species B.

Neglecta and B. Rivae can be excluded because these resins do not contain boswellic acids in significant amounts,. Furthermore, diterpenoids have been found to be resistant to chemical changes in pyrolysis experiments and were recovered in traces amounts in samples Q11, L14 and L15. According to the deconvoluted diterpenoid profiles in the commercial resins, the dominance of serratol in the archaeological samples corresponds to B.

Serrata and thus excludes B. Papyrifera and B. However, these identifications are very preliminary as only one sample from each species was analysed. Therefore, we advocate further research on these diterpenoid constituents to assess inter- and intra-species variability ( e.g. Differences in age, soil type, season and microclimate among all relevant Boswellia species).

Among the residues that displayed a major frankincense signature, traces of other potential incense ingredients were also retrieved. For instance, samples R2, R9, Q10, L14 and L15 displayed traces of pine tar. These signatures could, however, also relate to an earlier vessel use (see below).

More interesting are the biomarkers ferruginol, totarol and corresponding ketones which were identified in samples Q11 and Q12. They could derive from the Cupressaceae ( e.g. Tetraclinis, Juniperus, Cupressus) and Podocarpaceae ( e.g. Podocarpus) family as well as from Cedrus atlantica.

Podocarpaceae and Cedrus Atlantica are unlikely sources as these conifers are native to the southern hemisphere and the Atlas mountains in Morocco and Algeria, respectively. Sandarac resin, derived from Tetraclinis, can also be excluded as this resin should also contain free diterpenoids such as sandaracopimaric acid and acetoxy agatholic acid, even after aging or pyrolysis. From the Cupressaceae family, juniper ( Juniperus communis L.) is the only species that occurred in Belgium during the middle ages although it was probably rare in the study area as it prefers poor, sandy soils like the coastal dunes and the Campine region. Moreover, juniper berries have been commonly used in medieval Europe as a fragrant material and contain totarol as the major diterpenoid constituent.

Vessel recycling The fact that most perforated vessels are ordinary domestic ceramics and have been pierced after firing suggests that the vessels had an earlier use-phase prior to their use as censers. We attempted to find chemical evidence for this by investigating not only surface residues but also absorbed organic residues inside the ceramic fabric whenever possible.

The latter are known to be depleted in intrusive soil lipids,,, thus avoiding uncertainty in the interpretation of potentially food-derived lipids that were detected in some of the residues ( viz. Traces of fatty acids, alkanols and alkanes). The ovoid pot from Namur (N13) represents the clearest evidence for a domestic provenance. Not only was the pot found in a cesspit from an urban domestic site, it also contained clear markers of heated ruminant fats suggesting its use as a cooking vessel. Durand has already postulated, based on visible traces of use and iconographic sources, that perforated ceramics had been used for food preparation prior to their application in funerary rites. The vessel from Namur (N13), however, lacks clear evidence for incense burning, which possibly indicates that the vessel was pierced to adapt it for use in funerary rituals but has never been actually used for that purpose. Another hypothesis is that the vessel has been recycled as a lamp and that an animal fat such as ruminant tallow has been used as fuel.

It is well established that animal fats as well as various plant oils have been widely employed as illuminants in Roman and medieval periods –. Furthermore, the pine tar signature of vessel Q10 constitutes another possible indication for vessel recycling.

Pine tar and pitch have been widely used to coat ceramics to make them impermeable for liquids such as wine, oils or garum, with the earliest evidence dating back to the 7 th century BC. While pitch coatings were very common in classical antiquity,, it is not clear if this technique was still used in late medieval ceramics due to a lack of chemical research. Nevertheless, pine pitch continued to be used as a waterproofing material which is evidenced by analyses of contemporary naval timbers like that of the Mary Rose, the flagship of king Henry VIII,, and the Bremer Kogge. Moreover, there are evidences of late medieval pitch production sites like that of Ruppersdorf in Germany.

Possibly, pine tar has also been used as coating for this funerary vessel. In that case, however, it must refer to an earlier use-phase involving liquid handling or storage since the perforations suggest that it was used as a censer. The absence of frankincense markers might be due to the fact the sample has been extensively washed following excavation. Absorbed residues from vessels R2 and R9 did not contain lipids which could be related to a vessel use other than incense burning, although markers for pine tar in the corresponding surface residues might relate to an earlier use associated with liquid handling or storage.

Alternatively, pine resin or rosin could also have been used as a minor incense ingredient (see above). Minor traces of pine tar were also found in samples Q11, L14 and L15. The act of vessel recycling and the use of pots of inferior quality in particular, are in stark contrast with the precious nature of the frankincense. This apparent discrepancy remains enigmatic, however, and one can but adhere to a few certainties, namely (i) that the vessels are indeed of inferior value as more elaborate wares of higher quality (other techniques, typology, etc.) have been made in this period, (ii) that they were not only reserved for the elite, for the clergy nor for any other social class ( cf. Supra) and (iii) that the pots were used as soon as the corpse is placed on the bier as evidenced by iconographic sources (). Questions remain as to whether the pots and the frankincense might have been provided by separate entities, viz. The family and church officials, respectively?

Or could the use of inferior pots perhaps be explained by a dichotomy between the ban on grave gifts imposed by the catholic church and a general desire to provide the departed with religious symbols such as frankincense? In any event, the appearance of funerary incense pots from the 11–12 th century onwards indicates a growing concern about a person’s fate, a life after death, and how the latter may be improved. The fear of an all-destroying Death and purgatory further proliferated in the 14 th century when the Black Death traumatized the European population.

Conclusion Incense burning in religious and domestic contexts has existed since the beginnings of our civilization. Yet, few chemical analyses have been performed on remnants of this widespread ritual, which in part may be due to the misconception that incense is a fairly volatile substance leaving no traces after burning.

Nevertheless, certain resins such as frankincense contain a substantial amount of non-volatile components which are well preserved in the archaeological record. Heating in contact with ceramics or charcoal induces myriad chemical transformations but, fortunately, not necessarily to such an extent that the original incense material cannot be recognized anymore. Our data from late medieval funerary censers from southern Belgium allowed to study these chemical changes. 24-nortriterpenoids were abundant compounds in most samples and are formed from boswellic acids during pyrolysis. Novel compounds, namely Δ 2-boswellic acids, were identified based on mass spectral data and retention characteristics.

These compounds represent dehydration products which may have formed during mild pyrolysis or during prolonged contact with desiccants such as charcoal. Furthermore, small amounts of polyunsaturated and fully aromatic hydrocarbons and the absence of toxic PAHs such as benzo[a]pyrene are indicative for mild pyrolysis conditions.

Unaltered frankincense compounds such as boswellic acids, tirucallic acids and cembrane type alcohols were only present in trace amounts. Particularly the latter were nevertheless instructive to indicate Boswellia sacra and Boswellia serrata as possible botanical sources.

Still, further research is needed to resolve these diterpenoid alcohols and to verify the proposed species-specific identification criteria following a thorough assessment of inter- and intraspecies variability. The perforated pots from southern Belgium, apart from providing an occasion to study well preserved burned frankincense remains, also constitute an intriguing find category which, despite its widespread occurrence in western Europe, has not been investigated in depth by advanced scientific techniques. We report herein the first material proof of their function as censers and, in one case, for food preparation. Chemical analyses evidenced that frankincense was used as the major incense ingredient and that small amounts of juniper and possibly pine resin have been added, most likely to reduce the cost. Anthracological analysis revealed that charcoal was most likely recycled from domestic fires in two thirds of the cases, whereas the remaining vessels might contain intentionally produced charcoal. Except for the vessels that were perforated before firing, the vessels themselves were probably not primarily made for censing as we found indications that some of them have been used for alimentary purposes. Our results have demonstrated the high potential of chemical analyses to identify incense mixtures in perforated funerary pots but further research is needed to assess variability on a larger interregional scale.

Funding Statement This research was supported by the Belgian Programme on Interuniversity Poles of Attraction (IAP 7/09, iap-cores.be), the special research fund of the KU Leuven (Centre for Archaeological Sciences, ees.kuleuven.be/cas) and the Research Foundation - Flanders (G.0486.12, ). The Research Foundation - Flanders is acknowledged for enabling the acquisition of a new GC-MS instrument.

The other funders had no role in study design, data collection and analysis, decision to publish, or preparation of the manuscript.